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[173] The war crimes and crimes-against-humanity charges held up the best, with only two defendants who were charged being acquitted on those charges. Nothing new ever happened before. [235] In the 1990s, a revival of international criminal law included the establishment of ad hoc international criminal tribunals for Yugoslavia (ICTY) and Rwanda (ICTR), which were widely seen as part of the legacy of the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials. Lesley Stahl: He's a savage when he does the murder though. Benjamin Ferencz: A father who, his son told me the story. / CBS News. [13] Planners in the United States Department of War were drawing up plans for an international tribunal in late 1944 and early 1945. There's the rabbi coming along there. The Nuremberg trials were a series of 13 trials carried out between 1945 and 1949, the Trial of Major War Criminals being held from November 20, 1945 to October 1, 1946. . [200] The case law of the trials fleshed out the skeleton provided by the Nuremberg charter and the IMT verdict. [10][11], Of all the Allies, the Soviet Union lobbied most intensely for trying the defeated German leaders for aggression in addition to war crimes. [155] In the context of the brewing Cold War, the trial became a means of condemning not only Germany but also the Soviet Union. [85] The prosecution examined 110,000 captured German documents[40] and entered 4,600 into evidence,[87] along with 30 kilometres (19mi) of film and 25,000 photographs. 06/29/2021. Benjamin Ferencz: Well, don't say that. [43] The United States prosecution believed that Nazism was the product of a German deviation from Western history (the Sonderweg thesis) and sought to correct this deviation with a trial that would serve both retributive and educational purposes. Included in the archive are firsthand accounts from the few who survived the Nazi concentration camps, including for example Marie-Claude Vaillant Couturier, a member of the French Resistance who was imprisoned at Auschwitz and Ravensbrck. Nuremberg Combo Tour WWII + Old Town. You're not getting very far. These were people who could quote Goethe, who loved Wagner, who were polite--. [141] The defendants tried to blame their crimes on Hitler, who was mentioned 1,200 times during the trialmore than the top five defendants combined. subscribe to Stanford Report. Grbe painfully recounts how he saw a grave of over a thousand bodies, some of whom were still moving.. Nearly 75 years ago, the Nuremberg Trial came to a close when on Oct. 1, 1946, a group of convicted Nazi leaders was sentenced by the International Military Tribunal (IMT) for crimes against peace . [117] The French prosecutors, more than their British or American counterparts, emphasized the guilt of the German people;[118] they barely mentioned the charge of aggressive war and instead focused on forced labor, economic plunder, massacres, and Germanization. Stanford News is a publication of Stanford University Communications. The Nuremberg trials were a series of 13 trials carried out in Nuremberg, Germany, between 1945 and 1949 to try those accused of Nazi war crimes. The verdict was drafted by British alternate judge Norman Birkett. Ferencz told us he is still haunted by the things he saw. The Rome Statute establishing a permanent International Criminal Court (ICC), which had been proposed in 1953, was finally agreed to in 1998. Not guilty. Benjamin Ferencz: --recall if I'd ever been in a courtroom actually. (the covid vaccines are still experimental as of August 8, 2021), that is called duress, overreaching, and coercion, which is a clear . Three were acquitted and the rest given long prison sentences. [161][162], The International Military Tribunal agreed with the prosecution that aggression was the gravest charge against the accused, stating in its judgement that because war in general is evil, "To initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime; it is the supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole. He never stops pushing his message and he's donating his life savings to a Genocide Prevention Initiative at the Holocaust Museum. [10] The declaration also stated that those high-ranking Nazis who had committed crimes in several countries would be dealt with jointly. The defendants' lawyers jointly appealed to the court, claiming it did not have jurisdiction against the accused; but this motion was rejected. This footage came to light years later. Just put 'em in the ditch. And these were daily reports from the Eastern Front-- which unit entered which town, how many people they killed. [205] Where the prosecution was disappointed by some of the verdicts, the defense could take satisfaction. Nazi . [84][85] The American prosecution drew on reports of the Office of Strategic Services and information provided by the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research and the American Jewish Committee. [40] Each state appointed a prosecution team and two judges, one being an alternate. [94] All defendants pleaded not guilty. Benjamin Ferencz: He's not a savage. [130] The defense presented evidence of Soviet responsibility,[131] and Katyn was not mentioned in the verdict. Ben Ferencz in court: The charges we have brought accuse the defendants of having committed crimes against humanity. As U.S. forces liberated concentration camps, his job was to rush in and gather evidence. The Doctors' Trial was one of 13 proceedings. The Center for Human Rights and International Justice and Stanford Libraries hope to establish a single destination point that can help people understand how to seek justice when crimes against humanity have occurred and how to pursue accountability for systematic and widespread violence. Until the end of the negotiations, it was not clear that any trial would be held at all, due to acrimonious disputes over fundamental matters; the American delegation threatened to walk out. [54] The Soviet judges and prosecutors were not permitted to make any major decisions without consulting a commission in Moscow led by Soviet politician Andrei Vyshinsky; the resulting delays hampered the Soviet effort to set the agenda. 27-year-old Ben Ferencz became the chief prosecutor of 22 Einsatzgruppen commanders at Nuremberg. (November 18, 2021 / JNS) A bipartisan group of the members of the U.S. House of Representatives introduced a bill on Thursday to award a Congressional Gold Medal to the last living prosecutor of the Nuremberg trials.. [71][72] The military leaders were Hermann Gring, Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Jodl, Erich Raeder, and Karl Dnitz. And you're full of energy and passion. The only part of the French charges that were accepted by the judges was the deportation of Jews from France and other parts of Western Europe. [90][91] The bringing of conspiracy charges also slowed the trial, as the same evidence ended up being read out multiple times, when it was relevant to both substantive and conspiracy charges. She said: "The Nuremberg Code relates to research, where the emphasis of informed consent requirements is on preventing the research participants from being used as a means to an end. 22 mins. In doing so, it established a legal precedent in international humanitarian law that is still relevant today. [87] Over the course of the trial, Western judges allowed the defendants additional leeway to denounce the Soviet Union, which was ultimately revealed to be a co-conspirator in the outbreak of World War II. So he finished at Harvard then enlisted as a private in the Army. Nearly 75 years ago, the Nuremberg Trial came to a close when on Oct. 1, 1946, a group of convicted Nazi leaders was sentenced by the International Military Tribunal (IMT) for crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during World War II and the Holocaust. [55], The work of drafting the indictment was divided up by the national delegations. Stanford Libraries is working with the Registry of the International Court of Justice to build a complete digital corpus of this historic archive. People receiving the COVID-19 vaccines at this point are not taking part in a medical experiment, because the vaccines already have gone through clinical trials and have received emergency . Benjamin Ferencz: No. [14][15] The exact form that retribution would take was left unresolved at the Yalta Conference in February 1945. [217][218] The last prisoner was released in 1958. [228] The most controversial charge was crimes against peace. Ferencz learned quickly. By exploring previous international or domestic trials, tribunals, and commissions, people from policymakers to human rights activists can see what was successful in previous investigations or prosecutions, where there were failures, and how such defeats can be avoided in the future. [38], In early 1946, there were a thousand employees from the four countries' delegations in Nuremberg, of which about two-thirds were from the United States. [160] On 2 September, the court recessed; and the judges retreated into seclusion to decide the verdict and sentences, which had been under discussion since June. He said, "OK. Exhibit 111: "In the last 10 weeks, we have liquidated around 55,000 Jews." Streicher was executed in 1946 by hanging along with nine other Nazis, including Hans Frank, the highest-ranking Nazi officer in occupied Poland. Proposals for how to punish the defeated Nazi leaders ranged from a show trial (the Soviet Union) to summary executions (the United Kingdom). By submitting the above I agree to the privacy policy and terms of use of JTA.org. . [223], The International Military Tribunal, and the drafters of its charter, invented international criminal law essentially from nothing. He wanted to be a pilot, but the Army Air Corps wouldn't take him. [102] Jackson's focus was on the aggressive war charge, which he described as the root of the crimes against humanity and of war crimes. [110] Unlike Jackson, he attempted to minimize the novelty of the aggression charges. [150] The judges barred most evidence on Allied misdeeds from being heard in court. (JTA) At the opening of his trial in Nuremberg, Julius Streicher made several uncharacteristically friendly statements about Jews a people he had devoted his professional life to demonize. I was 27 years old. | Minds. Monday, Aug. 16, 2021, in Des Moines . [37] Nineteen states ratified the charter and were admitted as observers. [73] Also on trial were propagandists Julius Streicher and Hans Fritzsche; Rudolf Hess, Hitler's deputy who had flown to Britain in 1941; Hans Frank, governor-general of the General Governorate of Poland; Hitler Youth leader Baldur von Schirach; Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Reich Commissioner for the Netherlands; and Ernst Kaltenbrunner, the leader of Himmler's Reich Main Security Office. Dr. Reiner Fuellmich, alongside thousands of . Benjamin Ferencz: Defendants' face were blank, all the time. You know? [145], Despite the fact that the charter did not recognize a tu quoque defense, such arguments were repeatedly raised during the trial. (Image credit: National Archives of the Netherlands / ANP, CC0), (Image credit: U.S. Preserving records from the Nuremberg Trial as well as materials from the subsequent tribunals and truth and reconciliation commissions it inspired is crucial to protecting the historic and judicial legacies of the war and acknowledging the consequences of mass atrocities, said David Cohen, director of the Stanford Center for Human Rights and International Justice and professor of classics in the School of Humanities and Sciences. [24][25] Although a novel construct, "crimes against humanity" covered acts that were already prohibited by the laws of most countries. (Image credit: U.S. Copyright 2023 CBS Interactive Inc. All rights reserved. [18], At the London Conference, held from 26 June to 2 August 1945, representatives of France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States negotiated the exact form that the trial would take. [60] Conspiracy charges were especially central to the cases against propagandists and industrialists; the former were charged with providing the ideological justification for war and other crimes, while the latter were accused of economic mobilization without which no war would have been possible. [12] The United States insisted on a fair trial as a means of reforming Germany. [127] Evidence was presented on the murder of children, attempts to cover up atrocities,[128] systematic plunder of occupied territories, and confiscation or destruction of cultural heritage. Massachusetts woman arrested for placing swastikas at Jewish womans home, Netflixs Rough Diamonds brings viewers into the drama of Antwerps Orthodox diamond district, Sofia Richie, Lionel Richies daughter, marries Jewish music executive after converting to Judaism, Sammys Roumanian, iconic Lower East Side Jewish restaurant, mounts a comeback, Stranger Things star Brett Gelman proposes to singer girlfriend Ari Dayan in Jerusalem, Disney+ series A Small Light tells the Anne Frank story from the perspective of the woman who hid her, Barbra Streisand is getting the next Jewish Nobel, in prizes return to celebrity tradition, Meet the real-life rabbi in the synagogue scene of Are You There God? To tell somebody a man can become a woman, a woman can become a man, and a man can marry a man, they would have said, "You're crazy." That is the current system. Judges deliberate at the trials of Nazi war criminals in Nuremberg, Germany, Jan. 1, 1945. . [100], On 21 November, Jackson gave the opening speech for the prosecution. [175][176], Four organizations were ruled to be criminal: the Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party, the SS, the Gestapo, and the SD, although some lower ranks and subgroups were excluded. [231], The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo Trial) borrowed many of its ideas from the IMT, including all four charges. "Informed consent for treatment serves a slightly different purpose. In the Hostages case, several generals were tried for executing thousands of hostages and prisoners of war, looting, using forced labor, and deporting civilians in the Balkans. Jackson. On December 9, 1946, an American military tribunal opened criminal proceedings against 23 leading German physicians and administrators for their willing participation in war crimes and crimes against humanity. 40 years on from the Majdanek trial verdict. [204] In the United Kingdom, although a variety of responses were reported, it was difficult to sustain interest in a long trial. There are also transcripts of eyewitness accounts, including that of Hermann Grbe, a construction manager who described the horrors of a mass execution he saw in Dubno, Ukraine. 1/6. Benjamin Ferencz: Well, this is typical operation. Benjamin Ferencz: Standard routine, nicht schuldig. On 17 September, the various delegations met to discuss the indictment. You know? [234][235] Further developments in international criminal law in the aftermath of the trials included the Genocide Convention (1948) and the Fourth Geneva Convention (1949). Twelve of the defendants were sentenced to death (Gring, Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kaltenbrunner, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick, Streicher, Sauckel, Jodl, Seyss-Inquart, and Bormann). Vaillant Couturier later became a French politician. The trials, conducted at a military tribunal with judges from Allied nations including the Soviet Union, were a seminal milestone in the creation of modern international law in general and the prosecution of crimes against humanity. [168], The judgment found that there was a premeditated conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, the goals of the conspiracy being "the disruption of the European order as it had existed since the Treaty of Versailles" and "the creation of a Greater Germany beyond the frontiers of 1914". It's never been done before. Benjamin Ferencz: Of course. Published Jul 14, 2021. Holocaust Memorial Museum placed online more than 700 hours of audio recordings from the trials, as well as 37 reels of film introduced as evidence. Benjamin Ferencz: And I'm still in there fighting. Stanford University is marking the 75th anniversary of the International Military . I've got here mass murder, mass murder on an unparalleled scale." [146][147] Defense lawyer Alfred Seidl[de] repeatedly tried to disclose the secret protocols of the GermanSoviet pact. The claim has circulated widely online, including in this November 24, 2021 article (archived here) published by biotechexpressmag.com titled "Team of 1,000 lawyers and 10,000 Medical Experts Start Nuremberg 2 Trial against World Leaders for Crimes Against Humanity." It opened: [132] The inclusion of Katyn in the charges undermined the credibility of Soviet evidence in general. Benjamin Ferencz: We're marching forward. Ferencz is the last Nuremberg prosecutor alive today. Benjamin Ferencz: Of course, is my answer. Between November 20, 1945, and October 1, 1946, the International Military Tribunal (IMT) tried 21 of the most important surviving leaders of Nazi Germany in the political, military, and economic spheres, as well as six German organizations. [159] During the closing statements, most defendants disappointed the judges by their lies and denial. They all have already tags on 'em. [238][239] The Palace of Justice houses a museum on the trial and the courtroom became a tourist attraction, drawing 13,138 visitors in 2005. Series of military trials at the end of World War II, This article is about the series of international trials. Judge: How do you plead to this indictment, guilty or not guilty? The technology will allow users to discover and cut straight to material in a really dense corpus without being an expert on the trial or being a lawyer, and that is really powerful, Van Tuyl said. For Cohen, testimonies in the archive show the lived horror of mass atrocity and violence, which is regretfully still relevant in the world today. [236][237], The trials were the first use of simultaneous interpretation, which stimulated technical advances in translation methods. And he's been nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize. [163] Contrary to the prosecution, the verdict dated the planning of aggression to the 1937 Hossbach Memorandum and not to the founding of the Nazi Party. [183][184] The judges proved their independence from the governments that appointed them, the defendants were seen as receiving due process, and the evidence of guilt amassed by the prosecution was overwhelming. Between 1939 and 1945, Nazi Germany invaded many countries across Europe, inflicting 27 million deaths in the Soviet Union alone. 2021 CBS Interactive Inc. All Rights Reserved. Get browser notifications for breaking news, live events, and exclusive reporting. [106][107] The Americans summoned Einsatzgruppen commander Otto Ohlendorf, who testified about the murder of 80,000 people by those under his command, and SS general Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski, who admitted that German anti-partisan warfare was little more than a cover for the mass murder of Jews. [190][191] Also on trial were industrialistsin the Flick trial, the IG Farben trial, and the Krupp trialfor using forced labor, looting property from Nazi victims, and funding SS atrocities. All wars, and all decent people. You know? [198] The trials targeted 177 defendants and obtained 142 convictions, including 25 death sentences;[199] the severity of sentencing was related to the defendant's proximity to mass murder. But he isn't content just being a part of 20th-century history -- he believes he has something important to offer the world right now. His equivocations, standing in sharp contrast to his genocidal editorial line reflected in slogans like Germany will live as long as it sees the Jews as the mortal enemy of mankind, are now available online for the first time along with hundreds of additional hours of audio and video recordings from the trials of 24 Nazis that ended 1946, nearly 75 years ago. [119] Unlike the British and American prosecution strategy, which focused on using German documents to make their case, the French prosecutors took the perspective of the victims, submitting postwar police reports and calling eleven witnesses. Lesley Stahl: Did you meet a lot of people who perpetrated war crimes who would otherwise in your opinion have been just a normal, upstanding citizen? All eight judges participated in the deliberations, but the alternates could not cast a vote. 27 Aug 2021. A new drama from Radio 4 follows the race to track down and capture war criminals, the struggle . Exhibit 84, from Einsatzgruppen D in March of 1942: Total number executed so far: 91,678. [88], The charter allowed the admissibility of any evidence deemed to have probative value, including depositions. [188] The Office of Chief Counsel for War Crimes identified 2,500 major war criminals, of whom 177 were tried. and Chris Smith (R-N.J.) would . [123] The next week, the Soviet prosecution suddenly produced former field marshal Friedrich von Paulus, captured after the Battle of Stalingrad, as a witness and questioned him about the preparations for the invasion of the Soviet Union. [56][57] After this division of formulating the charges, the British and American delegations decided to work jointly in drafting the charges of conspiracy to wage aggressive war.
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